Deccan Volcanism And Mass Extinction

What role did Deccan Volcanism play in the end Cretaceous mass extinction? 

There is widespread agreement that an asteroid struck what is now the Yucatan Peninsula region of Mexico 66.05 million years ago. The resulting environmental catastrophe precipitated an abrupt mass extinction, wiping out 70% of all species. In the rock record, a thin clay layer preserves evidence of the extraterrestrial origin of this impact event. It is referred to as the K-Pg boundary layer, K being Cretaceous and Pg referring to the Paleogene. The biota below the boundary layer is very different from fossil assemblages above it.

The earth at that time was also experiencing a major episode of basalt volcanism. This Large Igneous Province (LIP) is known as the Deccan Volcanic Province or the Deccan Traps. Volcanism occurred both before and after the impact event. Geologists have been divided on whether most the lava erupted after the asteroid hit or before it with different implications for the role of volcanism in the mass extinction. There was also an uncertain and incomplete assessment of the volumes of lava involved.

A new paper by Vivek S. Kale and coworkers titled “Spatio-temporal volume recalibration shows Deccan volcanism caused Terminal Cretaceous Mass Extinction” leaves no room for doubt about which side of the divide this group stands. The researchers examine over 80 lava sections across the Deccan Volcanic Province and recalculate the lava volume, assigning packages of lava a time bracket based of absolute dating, magnetic signatures, and fossils. They find that around 70% of the Deccan lava erupted in a time span of 300,000 years before the mass extinction.

Their results are summarized in this infographic. Source: Vivek S. Kale and coworkers, GSA Bulletin, November 2025.

The volume estimates of previous workers and their study is shown to the left. Also presented are marine paleo-environmental indicators represented by a paleo-temperature curve and carbon isotope curves spanning the mass extinction.

A short explanation of these curves will be useful.

For estimating temperature, geologists use the ratio of Oxygen 18/Oxygen 16 preserved in the shell (CaCO3) of planktonic organisms like foraminifera or calcareous nanoplankton. During warm phases, vigorous evaporation results in more of O18 escaping into the atmosphere, enriching the ocean slightly in the lighter O16. Calcium carbonate shell growth incorporate O18 and O16 without preference, maintaining the same O18/O16 ratio of sea water .

Warmer seas will result in shells having a lower O18/O16 ratio, than shells that grow in cooler water. The temperature is estimated from these measured oxygen isotope ratios.

The increase in sea surface temperature observed here, known as the Late Masstrichtian Warming Event (LMWE), has been linked to increased CO2 emissions during Deccan Volcanism.

Carbon isotope trends through time are presented by measuring the C13/C12 ratio of the target sample. ‘Bulk’ carbon means any carbon from hard parts as against carbon from organic material. It might mean just ground up limestone made up of a mixture of shells and lime mud. Jurassic onward, the proliferation of planktonic foraminifera has allowed geologists to select shells of just one or two species for their measurements. This makes it easier to screen for post depositional alteration which could reset the original oceanic C13/C12 ratio due to reaction with fluids of a different composition. It is more difficult to recognize these effects in a mixed sample, especially one with fine calcium carbonate mud.

Variation in C13/C12 ratio through time is generally regarded as an indicator of primary productivity. Photosynthesizing organisms have a strong preference for the lighter C12 to build organic tissue. The C13/C12 ratio of organic matter is strongly depleted compared to the sea water C13/C12 ratio. Similar to oxygen intake, growing shells preserve the C13/C12 ratio of the ocean. During environmental crises, reduced primary productivity enriches the ocean in the lighter isotope, also depressing the C13/C12 ratio of shells growing under these conditions.

The modest (relative to earlier Phanerozoic mass extinctions) carbon isotope excursion coincident with the K-Pg boundary suggests a decrease in primary productivity due to the extinction of some photosynthesizing groups. In contrast, the amplitude range of the isotope excursions seen during the Late Maastrichtian Warming Event can also be explained by a non-biological driver.

Carbon dioxide of volcanic origin is isotopically lighter than sea water. Pulses of volcanism may result in a large enough pool of lighter C12 dissolving in the ocean and shifting sea water C13/C12 ratio to the depleted values measured in Late Cretaceous shells.

Kale and coworkers argue that increased volume of lava eruption and emissions of CO2 and other gases in the Late Maastrichtian caused global warming and destabilized the biosphere. Ecosystems were already tottering when the asteroid delivered the knockout punch.

Just how stressed was the ecosystem? The most visible indicator of environmental changes impacting an ancient biosphere is the fossil record of that time period. Their paper however does not present any analysis of the Late Maastrichtian biota.

The several studies (Ref. 1, 2, 3) where from Kale and coworkers source the paleo-temperature and isotope record all unambiguously conclude that the LMWE had a limited impact on marine life. Species diversity did not change much. Fossil community structure remained stable, or where it did change, it reflected migration and range shifts. An example of this is L. Woelders and coworkers study of a Late Cretaceous section from the South Atlantic where they find fluctuating abundances of benthic foraminifera and dinoflagellates tracking climate and sea level cycles.

That is not to say that organisms were unaffected by this warming event. Other studies across the marine realm have documented biotic stress. Vincente Gilabert and coworkers find fragmentation of shells, abundance of low oxygen tolerant taxa, and dwarfing of some species, in their study of planktonic foraminifera of the Caravaca section in Spain. Similarly, Gerta Keller and coworkers study on planktonic foraminifera also reveals species dwarfism and abundance of high stress opportunistic species in the late Maastrichtian of the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic.

Nicholas Thibault and Dorothee Husson in a survey of the Late Cretaceous ocean point out that nanoplankton species numbers dropped during the LMWE, but diversity rebounded and increased with no significant extinction in the last 140,000 years of the Cretaceous. Michael Henehan and coworkers infer an increase in ocean acidity coinciding with the LTME based on reduced preservation of calcium carbonate shells on the sea floor. Shell preservation and sea water carbonate saturation return to pre event values in the last 200,000 years before the K-Pg impact event.

Do these observations on plankton species signal some sort of a beginning of the end of ecosystems across the entire marine biosphere? Since Deccan Volcanism spanned several hundred thousand years, could there have been a mass extinction if there had been no asteroid hit? It is conceivable that the prolonged volcanism could have resulted in a ratcheting of environment stress, eventually crossing tolerance thresholds.

This proposition has been hard to test because the asteroid crashed the Cretaceous party denying us an extended view of a volcanism only unfolding of history.

Still, we do have a good 300,000 year record before the impact of sedimentary deposition that coincided with the most voluminous phase of Deccan volcanism. Finer scale resolution of marine sections in the past few years allow us to examine global biotic trends from this time span.

As mentioned above, the impact of ocean warming seems to be quite limited to changes in shell size, temporary species abundance shifts, and adjustments by migration to favorable locales. Importantly, there is no signal of elevated extinction in diverse groups such as planktonic foraminifera, radiolarians, nanoplankton, ammonoids, bivalves, and gastropods in the final few hundred thousand years of the Cretaceous, when volcanism was at its peak (Ref 1,2,3,4).

A closer look at the environmental proxy data is revealing. After a warming phase, the paleo-temperature curve shows a 150 thousand year cooling trend in the terminal Maastrichtian until the K-Pg boundary. Mirroring this cooling trend is a distinct shift towards heavier carbon isotope values. This may be due to increasing primary productivity signaling a general amelioration of ocean conditions.

What could cause such a cooling despite ongoing voluminous volcanism and CO2 emissions? The answer may be enhanced weathering of all that fresh basalt which kept sequestering carbon dioxide during silicate weathering reactions.

There are two lines of observation that support increased weathering during end Cretaceous times.

The first observation is the recovery of calcium carbonate saturation level of the ocean. Weathering releases divalent cations like calcium and magnesium in to the ocean resulting in an excess positive charge (alkalinity) in sea water. The charge imbalance promotes dissociation of the poorly soluble CO2 gas (represented in equations as carbonic acid -H2CO3) and the formation of more stable negatively charged bicarbonate (HCO3) or carbonate (CO3) anions, raising carbonate saturation state. A decrease in dissolved gas leads to a draw down of atmospheric CO2 in to the ocean by air-sea gas exchange. Alkalinity can also be described as the buffering capacity of the ocean against excessive CO2 buildup.

Today, rapid atmospheric CO2 increase is a major concern for ecosystem and societal health. Research and small scale demonstrations to enhance ocean alkalinity are gaining importance as we try to replicate on human time scales what nature does over much longer time spans.

The other independent support for enhanced weathering comes from another isotope system, the osmium 187/osmium188 ratio. Continental crust is enriched in Rhenium187 which decays to Osmium187. Rocks like basalt derived directly from partial melting of the mantle have much lower Rhenium187 and consequently Osmium187. There is a progressive decrease in the Osmium187/Osmium188 ratio in Late Maastrichtian ocean sediments. This is consistent with weathering and increased supply of non-radiogenic Os188 from a fresh basalt source. Some of the decline can also be explained by a reduced supply of Os187 as large areas of radiogenic continental crust were blanketed by lava.

Late Cretaceous marine ecosystem health can also be assessed by looking at the difference in the C13/C12 ratio between surface dwelling planktonic and bottom dwelling benthic foraminifera shells. This isotope gradient is maintained by the biological pump, a transfer of organic carbon and nutrients from the sea surface to depths. Organic carbon is enriched in the lighter isotope compared to planktonic shells (as explained earlier). This organic matter sinks to the ocean depths and oxidizes, enriching the Dissolved Organic Carbon (DIC) pool in C12. Shells of benthic foraminifera (bottom dwelling) have a lower C13/12 ratio than planktonic calcifiers.

A noticeable C13/C12 gradient is present (Ref. 1, 2) in the latest Cretaceous ocean. It converges immediately above the K-Pg boundary, indicating a disruption of the marine carbon cycle only after the asteroid impact.

Environmental perturbations need not precipitate a terminal decline of ecosystems. My reading of the fossil record and the different proxies is that the effects of the LMWE were transient. Key biogeochemical cycles remained intact through the Late Maastrichtian implying that volcanism did not greatly diminish pelagic ecosystem function. The end Cretaceous marine biosphere shows recovery and resilience and not signs of a ‘critically damaged’ system.

David E. Fastovsky and Antoine Bercovici perceptively ask in their review of the terrestrial record of the K-Pg extinction- “how does one weaken an ecosystem in terms of its ability to withstand catastrophic, that is to say, very short-term events? In other words, this is not a ‘straw that broke the camel’s back’ situation, where preceding events play a big role in the eventual failure. Since large swaths were simply obliterated in the asteroid’s wake, and more distant regions experienced acute shock, it wouldn’t have mattered if ecosystems were weakened or hale and hearty.

I expressed a similar sentiment earlier in the post. To attribute a causal role to Deccan volcanism, there have to be signs that significant global extinction events occurred prior to the asteroid strike. The data just doesn’t point in that direction.

Earlier in earth history, the end Permian (251.9 million years ago) and the end Triassic (201.4 million years ago) mass extinctions have been more convincingly linked to massive environmental damage triggered by sustained igneous activity. The impact on the environment due to Deccan volcanism appears muted in comparison.

One reason could be that during the Permian and Triassic igneous episodes, magma intruded through thick sedimentary basins filled with limestone, organic rich shale, and sulfur bearing evaporites. Interestingly, the mass extinction coincided with the emplacement of thick sills, tabular bodies of magma injected parallel to the strata. As a result, a surge of volatiles emanating from baking sediment amplified volcanic emissions, overwhelming the earth’s natural buffering capacity. Both these mass extinctions are estimated to have unraveled in just tens of thousands of years.

In central Peninsular India, Deccan volcanism intersected older sedimentary basins only at the northern and southern fringes. Slow cooling shallow subsurface sills facilitating effective heat transfer to surrounding crust are absent. Instead, eruptions were fed by magma ascending rapidly along thin conduits (dikes) aligned in swarms. More relevant is that only sterile granitic rocks underlie the regions where the most voluminous eruptions took place.

Volatile bearing sedimentary rocks did play a role in the end Cretaceous mass extinction. But by a quirk of fate, it was the asteroid that found them. The Yucatan region of Mexico where the asteroid hit is underlain by hydrocarbon rich sediments, and sulfur rich salt. The impact released soot and sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere resulting in global cooling and reducing photosynthesis for weeks to months. Eventually, the dust settled upon a world utterly transformed. It was the beginning of a new world, one where flowering plants, song birds, and mammals diversified and flourished. From time to time, chance events have opened up entirely new avenues for evolution to explore.

It is pertinent to stress again the paramount importance of rates of processes in the context of our developing climate crises. Although in absolute terms humans may not emit more than past large volcanic events like the Cretaceous Deccan Volcanism or the Siberian Volcanism of late Permian times, we are emitting CO2 at a rate many times faster than these natural events. Carbon dioxide is building up in the atmosphere too quickly for weathering and ocean ecosystems to offset over the next few hundred years.

Lastly, Jurassic onward, the proliferation and evolution of plankton shell building organisms such as foraminifera and coccolithophores have played an important role in regulating ocean chemistry and as a buffer against atmosphere CO2 changes. This occurs by various processes. For one, the heavy shells act as ballast, exporting attached organic matter to depths before their degradation consumes oxygen in the uppermost oceanic layer. Much of this carbon gets buried, becoming a long term carbon sink.

The other important function is sustaining the ocean alkalinity balance. Precipitation of calcite and aragonite (CaCO3) removes positive charge from the ocean, in the form of divalent Ca cations, reducing alkalinity (see previous section on weathering). This alkalinity is recovered when calcareous skeletons, falling through the water column like an ocean snow, start dissolving when they sink below a threshold depth, releasing divalent Ca ions. This process known as carbonate compensation maintains the ocean’s capacity to absorb atmospheric CO2.

The cooling trend observed in the final 150,000 years of the Cretaceous suggests that the rates of emissions during Deccan volcanism likely remained relatively low. Silicate weathering on land and enhanced ocean alkalinity coupled to weathering runoff and carbonate compensation would have substantially offset Deccan CO2 emissions, moderating their environmental impact.

In the pre-Jurassic ocean, most carbonate skeleton producing organisms lived in the water column or on the sea bed of shallow continental shelves where the sea water was saturated with calcium carbonate. Skeletons did not dissolve in this environment and the biological contribution to ocean alkalinity was limited. This changed when the more geographically widespread plankton evolved biomineralization and their skeletons began settling down to depths where the ocean water is undersaturated with calcium carbonate. The calcareous plankton ecosystem has made post Jurassic oceans more resistant to external shocks, albeit over times scales of thousands of years.

By now readers may be wanting to ask- What about the dinosaurs? Did they persist right until the asteroid hit, or did they go extinct earlier? The avian branch of dinosaurs did survive. The following section is about the non-avian groups and the terrestrial fossil record.

There would have been an extirpation of local populations of dinosaurs and other fauna and flora living in areas directly affected by Deccan Volcanism. But what about the global record?

Terrestrial environments such as lakes and rivers which can preserve dinosaur fossils are patchily distributed. Frequent erosion also removes sediment, making the reconstruction of organic diversity and evolutionary trends much more difficult than for biota living in deep sea environments.

Despite these limitations, we do have some sedimentary sections which inform us about dinosaur life and the terrestrial biosphere of the Late Maastrichtian.

In their work on peat deposits from the Western Interior, U.S., Lauren O’Conner and coworkers estimate end Cretaceous paleo-temperatures based on configuration of preserved organic compounds. Besides the LMWE, they identify shorter warming and cooling phases in the final 100,000 years before the K-Pg boundary, likely driven by Deccan volcanism. However, the impact on the biota seems limited, with no decline in angiosperm diversity until the mass extinction.

Andrew J Flynn and coworkers study in New Mexico on the Naashoibito Member, a dinosaur rich sedimentary deposit, shows that dinosaurs were diverse and formed regionally distinct assemblages during the final few hundred thousand years before the asteroid strike.

The Hell’s Creek Formation spread over the States of North Dakota and Montana also offers insights in to the terrestrial ecosystems (Ref. 1, 2, 3) . Pollen and leaf assemblages attest to a healthy end Cretaceous flora. Both show a substantial and abrupt extinction at the K-Pg boundary. Vertebrate diversity also shows no decline throughout the Late Maastrichtian.

Mammals appear to the exception here. Gregory P Wilson and coworkers detailed survey of the Hell’s Creek Formation reveals two sequential changes in mammalian fauna 650,000 years and 200,000 years before the K-Pg boundary. Apart from changes in mammal assemblages, there is a decline in the abundance of metatherians. The authors link this decline to regional environmental changes, but don’t rule out the effect of Deccan volcanism.

Dinosaur fossils at the Hell Creek section have been found to within a few tens of cm of the K-Pg boundary, representing the last few hundred to a few thousand years of the Cretaceous. Their presence in numbers comparable to lower levels of the sedimentary section negates arguments that dinosaurs were either declining or had gone extinct well before the K-Pg impact event.

The icing on the cake is some recent work by Robert DePalma and coworkers on a debris layer in the Hell’s Creek section. These chaotic beds made up of boulders and fossils was deposited by a tsunami triggered by the asteroid hit. Among other organic remains, the researchers have found a fossil hind limb of an ornithiscian dinosaur. Their work was presented at the EGU 22 General Assembly 2022 in Vienna, Austria. The peer reviewed paper is yet to be published and some scientists have expressed skepticism and called for a more detailed examination of the fossils. But this initial announcement, along with other documented dinosaur fossil finds from North America, does strongly suggest that dinosaurs were well and alive until the very day the world changed 66.05 million years ago.

Dinosaur Engineers, Laterite Plateau, Social Insects

The latest batch of readings and a video for you readers.

1) How the death of the dinosaurs reengineered Earth. Here is an interesting linkage between dinosaurs, sedimentary rock type distribution and river geometry. Fluvial sedimentary environments are different before (Cretaceous) and just after (Paleocene) dinosaur extinction.

In the latest Cretaceous, large bodied dinosaurs destroyed riverside vegetation, destabilizing banks and preventing stable meanders. Natural levees were breached causing sand to spill onto the floodplains, resulting in an open riverine environment. Post dinosaur extinction, vegetation growth stabilized banks, forming stable channels and meander belts, promoting a sharper division between the constrained channel sands and surrounding floodplain fine mud and organic rich swamps.

Ecosystem engineering by dinosaurs!

2) The Rocky Life: Plateaus of the Monsoon. South of the town of Satara in Maharashtra, the crest of the Western Ghats is mantled by a thick hard iron rich soil known as laterite. This red crust is a deep weathering profile that developed by chemical breakdown of the Deccan basalts (in Maharashtra) and of Precambrian metamorphic rocks (Goa and southern Western Ghats) around 50 million years ago in the Eocene during a warm and wet climate phase. For long, these high regions were treated as "wastelands", devoid of vegetation and wildlife. 

But as biologist Varad Giri explains in this excellent video, there is a hidden world that a careful observer will notice. 

And conservation biologist Neha Sinha writes about (under paywall) the plant life on these rocky plateaus- Why India's "wastelands"are biodiversity hotspots in disguise.  As she evocatively wrote about the Kaas Plateau near Satara on her X timeline- "Lakhs of flowers - carnivorous, parasitic, wild, mesmerising, ephemeral, resilient".

3) One mother for two species via obligate cross-species cloning in ants.  Social insects must rank as some of the most amazing creatures.

In one species of ants, the mother gives birth to offspring of two different species! This happens because the mother uses sperm from another species male to produce the worker caste.

Yes, they have caste too!

I’ll reproduce the abstract here and leave you to roll your eyes in wonder-

“Living organisms are assumed to produce same-species offspring. Here, we report a shift from this norm in Messor ibericus, an ant that lays individuals from two distinct species. In this life cycle, females must clone males of another species because they require their sperm to produce the worker caste. As a result, males from the same mother exhibit distinct genomes and morphologies, as they belong to species that diverged over 5 million years ago. The evolutionary history of this system appears as sexual parasitism that evolved into a natural case of cross-species cloning, resulting in the maintenance of a male-only lineage cloned through distinct species’ ova. We term females exhibiting this reproductive mode as xenoparous, meaning they give birth to other species as part of their life cycle”.

I love the first line-  Living organisms are assumed to produce same-species offspring. After all, we never tried too hard to prove it!

Patterns Of Angiosperms And Insect Evolution

Charles Darwin famously called it an 'ábominable mystery'. He was referring to the sudden appearance and diversification of flowering plants in the Cretaceous fossil record. He noticed that these early fossils resembled modern flowering plants. 'Primitive' or ancestral stages were missing. Today, biologists categorize these as crown and stem representatives of a group. 

The first fossil evidence of flowering plants is from 140-130 million year old sediments. These are early types of pollen grains with one aperture (uniaperturate). Triaperturate pollen is found in slightly younger 125 million year old rocks. Towards the end of the early Cretaceous, by around 100 million years ago, flowers, leaves, and other organs appear from several continents representing all the major groups of angiosperms.

The picture below is of an early Cretaceous (~100 million year old) flowering plant from the lotus family. The location is northeast Brazil. There is a remarkable preservation of the whole plant, with connected roots, rhizome, leaves, and aggregate fruit. 

Source: William Vieira Gobo et.al. Nature Scientific Reports 2023- A new remarkable Early Cretaceous nelumbonaceous fossil bridges the gap between herbaceous aquatic and woody protealeans.

Taking a long view of their evolutionary pattern, angiosperm diversification is structured in three phases. The first phase was a steady expansion through early to late Cretaceous. There was more rapid diversification in late Cretaceous by around 70 million years ago. Enumeration of floral species through the Cretaceous indicate that angiosperms made up about 5% of species in early Cretaceous, increasing to 80% by Maastrichtian times (late Cretaceous). Despite this increase in species numbers, in terms of biomass, angiosperms were still a small component of Cretaceous floras. Their domination of floral communities, including the origin of modern wet tropical forests, began in the Paleogene (65-24 million years ago) after the end Cretaceous mass extinction. Michael J. Benton, Peter Wilf, and Herve Sauquet have provided a good overview in New Phytologist of this pivotal phase of ecosystem change.

These evolutionary changes did not occur in isolation. Throughout the Cretaceous, significant changes were occurring to terrestrial ecosystems, with the origination of many plant and animal groups. This extended phase of ecosystem reorganization is known as the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution. Angiosperm diversification is thought to have played a key role in this transformation of land biodiversity, so much so, that the phase from about 100 million years to 50 million years ago is known as the Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution.

The Cretaceous -Paleogene mass extinction hit angiosperms hard, as well as altering the trajectory of their evolution. For example, there was a 40% loss of diversity of flowering plants in Colombia following the mass extinction. But certain attributes of angiosperms, such as their partnerships with other organisms, their ability to efficiently capture energy and enhance photosynthetic rates, and an underlying genetic propensity to speciate, resulted in them expanding rapidly in the post extinction landscape. Angiosperm evolution opened up opportunities for a variety of land creatures including insects, spiders, lizards, birds, and mammals,  eventually driving up terrestrial biodiversity to 10 times more as marine biodiversity.

Paleobiologists are interested in understanding the interaction and impact angiosperm diversification could have had on other groups of plants and animals. Of particular interest is the diversification of insects in the Cretaceous and Paleogene.

Modern insect lineages began diversifying by 245 million years ago, long before angiosperms evolved. Gymnosperm and insect communities preserved in amber and sediments show that insects had an intricate relationship with host gymnosperms like cycads, conifers and ginkgoaleans.  Insect pollination of gymnosperms predated the origin of angiosperms by at least 100 million years and their fossil record show phases of diversification even when angiosperms were rare. 

Did angiosperm evolution also drive a rise in insect diversity? Pollinator insects particularly would seem to benefit from an abundance in flowering plants, and if so, what co-evolutionary patterns are apparent from the fossil record?

David Perise and Fabien Condamine have tackled this question in a new study in Nature Communications. I will share this beautifully compiled infographic from the paper that conveys so clearly the patterns of angiosperm and insect diversification through the Cretaceous and Cenozoic.

Digging into published databases, the researchers compiled data on the origination and extinction times of angiosperm and insect families. They then statistically analyzed whether angiosperm and insect origination and extinction times, and pulses of their diversification coincide. Their analysis showed that angiosperms seemed to have played a dual role in insect evolution. They mitigated insect extinction through the Cretaceous and spurred on the origination of new insect groups in the Cenozoic. Besides a broad analysis of insects, they also found that pollinator insects like bees and long proboscid butterflies show a pronounced diversification alongside angiosperm lineages. 

The success of angiosperms in the late Cretaceous and Cenozoic coincided with the decline in gymnosperms. Intrinsic mechanisms of genomic rearrangements in angiosperms resulted in repeated evolution of novel traits and specializations. They competitively displaced gymnosperms. The impact on gymnosperm dependent insects was variable. Generalist insect pollinators such as several beetle lineages transitioned to angiosperms. Much of the co-diversification of angiosperm and insects can be explained by this shift of gymnosperm pollinators to angiosperm hosts.  Gymnosperm specialized insect groups did not fare that well. For example, gymnosperms like Cheirolepidiaceae and Bennettitales went extinct by the latest Cretaceous. This was followed by the extinction of insect groups that were dependent on these plants such as some specialized long-proboscid flies, scorpionflies and lacewings.

Insect diversification did not depend only on angiosperms. Analysis also shows that warmer climate phases negatively impacted insect diversity and coincided with higher insect extinction rates. There seems also to be a relationship with other plant types. Spore plant and gymnosperm diversity had a positive impact on origination rates of insects. Ecosystem relationships and dependencies are multifarious and complex as this analysis between angiosperm and insect co-evolution shows.

Darwin's anxiety over flowering plants reflected his insistence that evolution is gradual. Nature does not make leaps, he stressed. He explained abruptness in the fossil record by invoking missing strata due to non deposition and erosion. Regarding flowering plants, he suggested that fossils were perhaps preceded by a period of cryptic evolution of that lineage that took place in a remote area or a lost continent, although he conceded that this was a poor explanation. However, this latter view, that a substantial lag time or a long fuse precedes the bang, continues to resonate among many biologists. Molecular methods that compares accumulated genetic difference to calculate the time of divergence of groups indicate a fairly long gap between the genetic branching of lineages and their first fossil appearance. 

Most familiar is the example of the origin of animals. Molecular data indicate that animals originated by 750 million years ago, yet unequivocal animal fossils appear by 570 million years ago, close to 200 million years later. Similarly, some molecular estimates put angiosperm origins to pre-Cretaceous times, stretching back 240-200 million years ago to Triassic-Jurassic, a good 100 million to 60 million years before first appearance of fossils.

This idea of a phylogenetic fuse has been recently criticized. Published in Systematic Biology, Graham E. Budd and Richard P. Mann have undertaken a critical examination of molecular clock methods. Their analysis indicate that popular methods used to assign probabilities to maximum age of lineages are biased against rapid lineage radiations being true evolutionary events. In their view, the mismatch between molecular dates of lineage origin and the timing of the first appearance of their fossils is an artifact. They point out that the coincident appearance of fossils from widespread localities in a particular sequence and across different modes of preservation faithfully records evolution. The time gap between the origin and later diversification of lineages is not that deep.

The 'abominable mystery' of the sudden appearance of fossil groups may in fact be a real biological motif in earth history, signalling the rapid radiation of lineages filling ecologic spaces following an environmental crises and evolutionary innovation.

That Day 66 Million Years Ago

Just wanted to share this abstract of a paper detailing an outcrop from Baja California, Mexico, which preserves heterogeneous deposits resulting from the Chicxulub meteorite impact 66 million years ago. 

We report K-Pg-age deposits in Baja California, Mexico, consisting of terrestrial and shallow marine materials re-sedimented onto the continental slope, including corals, gastropods, bivalves, shocked quartz grains, an andesitic tuff with a SHRIMP U-Pb age (66.12 ± 0.65 Ma) indistinguishable from that of the K-Pg boundary, and charred tree trunks. The overlying mudstones show an iridium anomaly, and fungal and fern spores spikes. We interpret these heterogeneous deposits as a direct result of the Chicxulub impact, and a mega-tsunami in response to seismically-induced landsliding. The tsunami backwash carried the megaflora offshore in high-density flows, remobilizing shallow marine fauna and sediment en route. Charring of the trees at temperatures up to >1000°C took place in the interval between impact and arrival of the tsunami, which on the basis of seismic velocities and historic analogues amounted to only tens of minutes at most. This constrains the timing and causes of fires, and the minimum distance from the impact site over which fires may be ignited.

Raging forest fires, a tsunami and its backwash, hundreds of millions of tons of sediment mobilized as gigantic mixed debris flows, ecosystems laid waste.

What a catastrophic time! 

The paper is open access but be aware that it is a preprint, yet to be peer reviewed. 

Forest fire at the K-Pg boundary on the Pacific margin of Baja California, Mexico: timing and causes- Amanada Santa Catharina et.al. 2022.

Cretaceous Cauvery Basin Stratigraphy

In the second year of my bachelor's degree course, a few of us friends had gone fossil hunting near the town of Ariyalur in Tamil Nadu. Ariyalur sits on Cretaceous age sediments deposited in a basin that formed as India broke away from Antarctica and Australia. The basin got filled slowly over time, by sediments brought in by rivers, as well as in the marine realm, as the sea episodically kept encroaching on to the continent interior. 

Before leaving for the trip we had approached Dr. V.D.Borkar, a research scientist with the Agarkar Research Institute in Pune, to help us plan the fossil collection. He very generously lent us maps and gave us a detailed idea of the villages to travel to and nearby field locations. 

All in all it was a fun field trip. We roamed the countryside around Ariyalur and collected plenty of fossils. In our collection were plant impressions on clay, ammonoids, belemnites, echinoids, coral fragments, and a variety of bivalves. The non geology highlight was the absolutely delicious vegetarian thali meal served in the canteen next to the town bus station! We used to gorge on it everyday, twice a day.

At that time I didn't have a good understanding of stratigraphy and even sedimentary geology. As it happened I did not grasp the broader implications of the distribution of particular fossils and the arrangement of strata that I was observing in the field. 

Its never too late to update yourself! The past month I have been reading three papers on the Cretaceous outcrops around Ariyalur which focus on basin development and stratigraphic evolution. In simpler language, stratigraphic evolution means the patterns by which basins fill up. A closer look reveals that basins are not made up of uniform continuous layers (layer cake stratigraphy) of one sediment type succeeding another, but rather there is lateral interfingering of different types of sediment, controlled by sediment distribution patterns, water energy, and basin topography.  

There are exogenous influences too. A long term drop in sea level will result in a particular arrangement of strata known as 'progradation', formed for example when deltas build out in to the sea. This may be followed by a long term sea level rise forming an overlay of a different sedimentary pattern, called  'retrogradation'. In this case as the sea encroaches on land, coarser sediments that are deposited closer to the shore get buried under deeper water fine grained sediments  A sedimentary section from base to the top (older to younger) reveals in its sediment characteristics these changing environmental conditions.

Documenting these patterns in not as esoteric an exercise as it may seem to some. Such analysis is very keenly taken up during petroleum exploration.  One may find during outcrop mapping that coarse sand deposits (potential petroleum reservoirs) occur at repeated intervals and are juxtaposed against finer organic rich mud rocks (potential hydrocarbon source rocks). This then may become a guide for optimizing detailed exploration strategy in areas of the basin where strata are buried and can't be observed directly. Just such a situation occurs in the Cretaceous Cauvery Basin. The sediments around Ariyalur is one of the main accessible outcrops. But further to the east, these sedimentary layers continue under the sea bed of the Bay of Bengal. A well documented and well understood outcrop provides an analogue for the unseen portions of the basin.

These three papers clarified to me much of the Cretaceous stratigraphy that I had failed to understand in my college days.

Here are the links:

1) Cretaceous tectonostratigraphy and the development of the Cauvery Basin, southeast India: Matthew P. Watkinson, Malcolm B. Hart and Archana Joshi

A broad study of basin formation by continental rifting and the resulting patterns of basin infilling interpreted in the context of tectonic events, major sea level fluctuation and depositional episodes.

2) Sea level changes in the upper Aptian-lower/middle(?) Turonian sequence of Cauvery Basin, India  An ichnological perspective: Amruta R. Paranjape, Kantimati G. Kulkarni, Anand S. Kale.

Ichnology is the study of trace fossils. These are tracks, trails and burrows made by the movement of  creatures living on the basin floor. Traces differ depending upon the nature of sediment substrate and environmental conditions and can be used along with other sedimentological and fossil data to interpret patterns of sea level change.,

3) Siliciclastic-carbonate mixing modes in the river-mouth bar palaeogeography of the Upper Cretaceous Garudamangalam Sandstone (Ariyalur, India): Subir Sarkar, Nivedita Chakraborty, Anudeb Mandal, Santanu Banerjee, Pradip K. Bose.

The Garudamangalam Sandstone formed during a sea level highstand i.e. at the peak of a sea level change cycle, when the rate of sea level rise finally slows down and stops. Sediment transported by east flowing rivers began building a delta. The exposed Garudamangalam Sandstone is part of this delta complex. This is a very nice analysis of sedimentary processes and products. The various subenvironments in this delta complex are identified and the chemical changes in the sediment after their deposition are documented using various techniques like chemical staining and cathodoluminescence. I really enjoyed reading this one!

On a personal note, the Covid catastrophe unfolding in India is making reading and writing difficult. However, I did find that a few hours of geology time that I am managing to hold on to brings me some comfort. 

Niche: Two Examples From Deep Time

The term 'niche' can very simply mean an ecologic space which a particular type of organism exploits. Scientists are a pedantic lot though. They need more rigorous definitions to work with. This has spawned many different ideas about what a niche means and how it can best be described and measured. There is the environmental niche concept which focuses on the physical and chemical attributes of an available space that may or may not be filled by organisms. In this idea, there may be vacant niches, which opportunistic organisms may come to exploit. On the other hand, there is the population niche concept where the niche itself is an attribute of the population. Organism-specific use of its resources, uniquely shaped by the organism's physiology, community structure, and behavior, defines the niche. 

Similar organisms may co-exist in a particular space. This may result in niche overlap and niche partitioning as different species vie for the available resources. Ideas of competitive exclusion (competition theory) derive from such co-habitation of space.

I am just giving a flavor of the arguments here and not diving into a discussion of the many niche concepts. For the purpose of this short post I will use the term niche to mean the actual utilization of a space and of available resources by a species/population.

Palaios is of my of my favorite science journals. It published papers on themes intersecting palaeontology, ecology, sedimentology and stratigraphy. Unfortunately, most of the papers are behind a paywall, so I have to make do with reading the abstracts and finding the occasional open access paper on Research Gate and Academia. Browsing through it last week, I came across two interesting examples of very specific fossil niches, one from the Cretaceous and another from the earliest Triassic. 

In the March 2020 issue, Alison J. Rowe and colleagues ( Late Cretaceous Methane Seeps As Habitats For Newly Hatched Ammonites) describe a community of ammonites (a type of mollusc) living in the vicinity of cold methane seeps. These fossils are preserved in the sedimentary rocks of the Late Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway, a time when sea levels were high and the mid North American continent was under the sea. Methane seeps often occurred along faults which provided the pathways for the gas to rise from the subsurface and be released on the sea floor. Ancient methane seeps are recognized by the presence of typical communities of clams, fossilized worm tubes, ammonites and bacterial microstructures. There is often the development of cone shaped sediment mounds known as Teppe Buttes, made up of calcium carbonate mud and skeletal remains of organisms. The carbon in the calcium carbonate is enriched in the lighter isotope C12, suggesting its derivation from a hydrocarbon source (the hydrocarbon itself is transformed organic matter which is richer in C12). 

Anaerobic oxidation of methane (bacteria stripped electrons and protons from the hydrogen in the methane to drive respiration) provided the energy to build a food web that formed the base of this chemosynthetic ecosystem. These ammonites were small, implying that they were born in this habitat, and their geochemistry indicated that they were incorporating the carbon released from methane to build their shells. What an utterly fascinating mode of life!

The second example is from the Latest Permian-Earliest Triassic (Dwelling In The Dead Zone- Vertebrate Burrows Immediately Succeeding The End-Permian Extinction Event in Australia), preserved in strata deposited just after the biggest mass extinction in earth history. Stephen McLoughlin and colleagues find and describe burrow structures made by small tetrapods. The sediments which contain these burrows are poor in other organic traces suggesting a terrestrial ecosystem which has been stripped bare due to prolonged debilitating environmental conditions.  Paleogeographic reconstruction indicates that at this time the Sydney Basin  occupied a high paleo-latitude. A burrowing lifestyle, coupled with relatively cooler climate of higher paleo-latitudes may have provided these tetrapods protection from the otherwise harsh post extinction conditions. A nice example of the ecology of post mass extinction survivor fauna.

If you want to explore the history of ideas on the niche concept I can recommend two essays. Niche: Historical Perspectives by James R. Griesmer, and, Niche: A Bifurcation in the Conceptual Lineage of the Term by Robert K. Colwell. Both have been published in the book Keywords in Evolutionary Biology, edited by Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd.

We have so much more to learn about life.

Magmas And Mass Extinction: Late Triassic

A new study on the synchronicity of igneous activity and the Late Triassic mass extinction which occurred around 201.5 million years ago.

Large-scale sill emplacement in Brazil as a trigger for the end-Triassic crisis- Thea H. Heimdal, Henrik. H. Svensen, Jahandar Ramezani, Karthik Iyer, Egberto Pereira, René Rodrigues, Morgan T. Jones & Sara Callegaro. The article is open access.

Magma intruded a thick pile of sediments in Brazil. The thermal reactions in the sediment would have resulted in the release of 88 trillion tons of CO2 from the degassing of sediments!

Abstract:

The end-Triassic is characterized by one of the largest mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic, coinciding with major carbon cycle perturbations and global warming. It has been suggested that the environmental crisis is linked to widespread sill intrusions during magmatism associated with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP). Sub-volcanic sills are abundant in two of the largest onshore sedimentary basins in Brazil, the Amazonas and Solimões basins, where they comprise up to 20% of the stratigraphy. These basins contain extensive deposits of carbonate and evaporite, in addition to organic-rich shales and major hydrocarbon reservoirs. Here we show that large scale volatile generation followed sill emplacement in these lithologies. Thermal modeling demonstrates that contact metamorphism in the two basins could have generated 88,000 Gt CO2. In order to constrain the timing of gas generation, zircon from two sills has been dated by the U-Pb CA-ID-TIMS method, resulting in 206Pb/238U dates of 201.477 ± 0.062 Ma and 201.470 ± 0.089 Ma. Our findings demonstrate synchronicity between the intrusive phase and the end-Triassic mass extinction, and provide a quantified degassing scenario for one of the most dramatic time periods in the history of Earth.

This prolonged phase of igneous activity resulted in the formation of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. Its connection to the mass extinction was hard to pin down due to a lack of accurate dates of the oldest igneous activity. This and some other work now show that phases of this magmatic episode were synchronous with the mass extinction.

A similar problem of lack of accurate dating of events had limited our understanding of the role of Deccan Volcanism in the mass extinction that took place at 66.04 million year ago. New geochronology work (summarized by Kale et. al. 2019)  is showing that volcanism spanned this mass extinction. Significant amount of lava eruptions took place before the mass extinction and would have played a role in the deterioration of environmental conditions. And volcanism continued well after the mass extinction delaying biotic recovery for hundreds of thousand of years.

Large injections of magma as laterally extensive intrusions (sills) into sediment has also been thought to have been the trigger for the end-Permian mass extinction that took place around 252  million years ago. Interestingly, like the end-Triassic, it was not emissions of carbon dioxide and methane directly from lava eruptions that is thought to be the driver of environmental change. Rather, it was the subsurface emplacement of sills and the thermal reaction (contact metamorphism) in buried sediment in contact with this hot magma that resulted in volumetric degassing from sediments. Limestones when heated this way would have released carbon dioxide upon breakdown of the mineral calcite. And organic matter would have released methane.

The long trajectory of evolution on earth has been disrupted and reoriented many times from deep within.

Palaeontology: Some Recent Spectacular Fossil Finds

Sharing some news on exciting fossil discoveries of the recent past:

1) Early animal evolution is a topic that continues to fascinate. A fossil rich sedimentary deposit from China dated to about 518 million years ago reveals exquisitely preserved soft bodied animals of the early Cambrian. This find, termed the Qingjiang biota, compliments the well known Burgess Shale of Canada and the Chenjiang site in China. It contains representatives of early cnidarians (related to corals), comb jellies, sponges, and many other creatures, and is helping paleontologists answer questions about the evolutionary relationships and timing of branching of animal groups.

Link: Spectacular new fossil bonanza captures explosion of early life.

2) Before the early Cambrian diversification of animals, is fossil evidence of the roots of some animal lineages, contained in the Ediacaran biota of late Neoproterozoic age ( 600-542 million years ago). At one site in S. Australia, a farmer is conserving a rich Ediacaran fossil site, turning it in to an outdoor research museum.

Link: This Australian farmer is saving fossils of some of the planet’s weirdest, most ancient creatures.

3) A 4 foot sedimentary layer in South Dakota contains a jumble of fossils of animals and plants. This 'event deposit' formed instantaneously from material gathered and dumped by a tsunami triggered by a large meteorite crashing into the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Readers will recognize this! It happened 66 million years ago and resulted in the end Cretaceous mass extinction.

Link: Fossil Site Reveals Day That Meteor Hit Earth and, Maybe, Wiped Out Dinosaurs.

..and there is a longer article in the New Yorker on this fossil site and the hard work paleontologists have put in to tease out its secrets..  (thanks to Hollis for the reminder! ).

Link: The Day The Dinosaurs Died

Happy reading!